Mail Online. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The oil makes glycerol, which in turn can be used to make nitro-glycerine, a key ingredient of dynamite. The thermal degradation and ignition point of wood and plywood may be generalized by the following: 230 to 302 F (110 C to 150 C): The wood will char over time with the formation of charcoal. Thanks for sharing the useful information, Pioneer, but can you cite the source and give credit where it's due? EDIT: Never mind --> http://www. Error, please try again. The ensuing fire was fought with large volumes of water and in the final stages covered with wet sand. Mix in coarse bulky substances such as branches, and wood chips to increase aeration. This compound is composed of gray or dark yellow crystals and is a dangerous fire risk. The second, perhaps more important way is that water absorbs the energyin this case, heatrequired to ignite the fire in the first place. WD-40 does not spontaneously combust. Immediately remove the risk by taking appropriate measures, such as removing the pile of rags in your garage, or inform management of the fire hazard. When the buildup of heat is faster than the escape of heat from the surface of the compost pile, the internal temperature can soar quickly to the point of self-combustion. Poor palm tree. An impressive action shot of these firemen at work. Is palm tree wood good for anything? | Aluminum alkyls are pyrophoric materials in a flammable solvent. Christmas Trees are not as likely to be the first item ignited in residential fires as many other common household items: newspapers and magazines 13 times more likely. Potassium sulfide (K2S) is a binary salt. This cookie is used to manage the interaction with the online bots. Topics:Combustion, ignition, oxidation, organic compounds. This cookie, set by Cloudflare, is used to support Cloudflare Bot Management. The NFPA 704 designation is health 3, flammability 1 and reactivity 0. Pictures of life in Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Hills. And since August 2013 also a look at the northern Negev, my new home. Researchers report that they've been able to block the decay process that causes cut Christmas trees to shed their needles. In fact, apart from compost, many other types of organic materials have been found to be susceptible to spontaneous combustion as well (Kayser & Boyars 1975). It can result from reactions of a susceptible material with air or water or from a chemical reaction. Used by Yahoo to provide ads, content or analytics. A fire occurred on Feb. 23, 1991, at the One Meridian Plaza Building fire in Philadelphia that resulted in the deaths of three firefighters. Theoretically, if enough heat For systems with mechanical aeration, operators are trained to turn up the aeration system to cool off a pile. The spontaneous combustion process begins very slowly and the heat of the reaction increases until combustion occurs. Dial 911 or your local fire emergency number if your hay bales or mulch, leaf, manure, or compost pile is emitting smoke. The rags used to apply linseed oil were placed in a plastic container in a storage room in the hangar, just below the living quarters. SC fires are smoldering fires that usually start deep within a compost or storage pile and may go undetected for a while. In fact, the most common types of spontaneous combustions are ignited due to improper disposal of different oil-soaked substances! The Organics Recycling Authority Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better experience for the visitors. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fires intensity will be different. Spontaneous combustion? High surrounding temperature also encourages water to evaporate, thus lowering the moisture content in the pile and making it hard for heat to escape. The more surface area between hay bales will speed drying by increasing the hay surface exposed to air. An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. Oxygen, fuel and heat are needed for fire to occur. All information these cookies collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous. Ensure that the facility is well ventilated. They are used as catalysts in polymerization reactions. Since 1960, July 20, 2021 Aluminum phosphide (AlP) is a binary salt. SC fires are most effectively extinguished by breaking a pile down and spreading the materials out in a layer about 6-inches to 8-inches thick (the author has done this by back-blading with the loader bucket). -- A palm in flames. This allowed the phosphorus to be exposed to air, which caused it to spontaneously ignite. It's not like it happens every day. Google DoubleClick IDE cookies are used to store information about how the user uses the website to present them with relevant ads and according to the user profile. It does not store any personal data. What are two ways to prevent spontaneous combustion Click through this slideshow to learn how to compare the flammability of dry and moist pine needles. The main factors causing SC fires are: biological activity; relatively dry compost piles; larger and more well-insulated piles (compost and composting feedstocks are good insulators and are more insulating as they dry out); limited air flow and reduced free air space; poor moisture distribution (the critical moisture content that supports SC is 25%-40%); a nonuniform mix of materials; and poor or incomplete temperature monitoring. The fire spread to the other containers and eventually consumed the entire truck. When fed it should be only a portion of a balanced diet. This insulation can be the material itself or may be in the form of some other combustible material. Any object that is 95F or above can be an ignition source. According to the U.S. Fire Administration, spontaneous fires are one of the leading causes of fires in agricultural storage facilities, such as barns, silos, and stables. Combustion can occur when fuel in the form of an organic substance (that is, one that contains hydrogen and carbon) encounters an energy source (such as heat) Fortunately, an employee saw the smoke and the fire was extinguished before significant damage occurred. Linseed oil and a rag will often spontaneously combust. Overheating can also occur when hay is harvested and put up too wet. delivered to your inbox twice a month enter your email below. Spontaneous combustion of oily rags occurs when rag or cloth is slowly heated to its ignition point through oxidation. This fact may come as a surprise to some people because there have been numerous fires blamed on soiled rags with those products on them. A variation of the _gat cookie set by Google Analytics and Google Tag Manager to allow website owners to track visitor behaviour and measure site performance. It is a red or yellow-red crystalline mass or fused solid. I will also go through the precautions that can be taken to prevent it. The cookie is a session cookies and is deleted when all the browser windows are closed. In a chemical process, the atoms that make up the original substances are regrouped into different molecules, and these new substances have different properties from those of the reactants. Rags and towels soaked with oils, including cooking oils; hot laundry left in piles; large compost, mulch, manure, and leaf piles; and moist baled hay can spontaneously combust in the right conditions. At this temperature and higher, oxygen is being used up by microbes faster than it can be replenished from the external environment, creating an anaerobic environment. Part II.BioCycle41 (2000b): 58-62. It has to do with the drying According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), approximately one tenth of one percent (0.12%) of residential fires involve a Christmas Tree both real and artificial. This steaming is a natural and normal occurrence that is of no concern as long as the pile is being adequately turned and kept moist. On June 16, 1992, a fire in a nursing home laundry in Litchfield, IL, caused $1.5 million in damage. WebPalm trees that have fibrous tissue or leaf stem bases along the trunk should be planted and maintained no closer than 30 feet from the trees drip line to any combustible structure. They will also ignite spontaneously in contact with air. As I do with other puzzling posts, I'm off now to do some research! When pockets of methane gas are met with exceedingly hot, dry materials, it can erupt into a fire or even an explosion even in small compost bins. This is known as the fire triangle. Spontaneous combustion is a sometimes mysterious and often misunderstood or misdiagnosed combustion of flammable materials. Think something like this cannot occur in your park or home? Start with the basic flammability protocol before making changes. Are these stories fact or fiction? Carol loves to garden and research to help others grow their green thumb. The poor tree, but good to see that the crews were so quick to respond. Composting And Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Producers Perspective. Any cloths or rags left in a pile or in a bin or bag have the propensity to self-heat and pose a risk of fire. The white space at the bottom of the diamond has a W with a slash through it, indicating water reactivity. My thesis aimed to study dynamic agrivoltaic systems, in my case in arboriculture. YouTube sets this cookie to store the video preferences of the user using embedded YouTube video. Spontaneous combustion can take place when a substance having a relatively low ignition temperature (straw, peat, hay, and more) begins to release heat. If other combustible materials are nearby, this little act of magic can quickly develop into a full raging fire. Planning and Carrying Out Investigations: This cookie is used to detect and defend when a client attempt to replay a cookie.This cookie manages the interaction with online bots and takes the appropriate actions. A windy environment can act as a catalyst to cause high temperatures to keep climbing despite the cessation of biological decomposition. . Make sure that the compost pile is moist to the touch, without being drenched. Coconut oil can be considered the most flammable cooking oil. In storage piles that lack mechanical aeration, the only option is to physically disturb the pile to promote cooling. I am currently continuing at SunAgri as an R&D engineer. This is especially true of high-fat Christmas Trees do not spontaneously combust. In-depth strategy and insight into critical interconnection ecosystems, datacenter connectivity, product optimization, fiber route development, and more. Will WD40 Spontaneously Combust? Fortunately, the owner had smoke detectors; the family was awakened and the fire department was called promptly. There are several preservatives on the market that can be sprayed on hay during the baling process. Park Structural Fire CoordinatorsKeep watch for unsafe storage and disposal of oily rags in concession facilities and maintenance buildings. Deploy network infrastructure faster and easier than ever before, with pre-packaged yet massively scalable infrastructure components for top packet and optical systems. Fires in restaurants have also occurred involving residual animal or vegetable oils in cleaning rags. Materials can also spontaneously combust when in contact with water. The material itself produces heat sufficient to reach its own ignition temperature. Overheating can also occur when hay is harvested and put up too wet. The mineral spirits solvent component can certainly ignite when exposed to an ignition source, but it does not self-heat. We'll assume you're okay with this, but you can opt-out if you wish. The bottom line is that manure piles should be turned regularly when composting, manure should be disposed of properly, and manure piles should always be monitored to prevent overheating. The heat from drying may cause the initiation of the chemical reaction that causes spontaneous ignition. This can be a great tool to monitor your pile on a daily or weekly basis. Discover more about the NPS fire mentioned above by reading a Facilitated Learning Analysis of the incident. For that reason, the oxidation reaction that occurs with animal and vegetable oils and the oxygen in the air does not occur. Traces of linseed oil were found in a pile of clean, warm garments in a cart. Spontaneous mulch combustion is believed to happen when heat builds up within a thick layer of mulch, say six inches or more. Decomposition begins at 350F. (2007b, March 23). White phosphorus (P), also known as yellow phosphorus, is a nonmetallic element that is found in the form of crystals or a wax-like transparent solid. All rights reserved. Ask any farmer about keeping damp hay as it dries out, it disintegrates and causes heat and fires. Clean-up created problems because as the phosphorus and sand mixture was shoveled into over-pack drums, the phosphorus was again exposed to air and reignited small fires. Carbon-based animal or vegetable oils, such as linseed oil, cooking oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, soybean oil, lard and margarine, can undergo spontaneous combustion when in contact with rags, cardboard, paper or other combustibles. The JSESSIONID cookie is used by New Relic to store a session identifier so that New Relic can monitor session counts for an application. All photos are my own unless otherwise stated. At NO time can a Real Christmas Tree START or CAUSE a fire. Journal Res. Graduated from ENSAT (national agronomic school of Toulouse) in plant sciences in 2018, I pursued a CIFRE doctorate under contract with SunAgri and INRAE in Avignon between 2019 and 2022. If the particle size is small and the day is hot and windy, even small compost piles can erupt into flames on their own. The now leafless and blackened dead palm will hopefully be cut down soon. The National Fire Protection Association tracks fires and their causes. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. The fire was quickly extinguished with a minimum of damage. Another is that compost piles shed water after the first 2 to 3 inches of the pile get saturated, so water never drains down into the burning embers inside the pile. The ground up trees were piled about 40 x 15 x 6 foot high.I did not add anything to it. In industrial processes, the storage or disposal of oily rags in piles can allow them to self heat, or the Park LeadershipPrepare standard operating procedures (SOPs) that outline the proper disposal of oily rags and ensure that the proper storage containers are available for use. If a fire starts in a compost bin or pile of completely dry grass clippings, it will be nothing to do with any hot weather. Aluminum phosphide. The UN identification number is 1427. This cookie is associated with Django web development platform for python. Most fire departments will try to soak down a big pile from the top, which rarely works. Research has shown that compost with a low moisture level of only 20-34% can accumulate so much heat that will reach a temperature of between 160 194 F (70-90 C). Try only one at a time: Different substances require different amounts of energy, usually in the form of heat, to ignite (or activate) a combustion reaction. This is to prevent the pile from compacting and forming pockets that are low in oxygen which would lead to an explosive release of heat under pyrolysis. The V-pattern on the wall led right back to the box where the linseed oil-soaked rags had been placed. AskGardening is reader-supported. (2022). Depending on the fuel used, other substances such as soot will likely be produced as well. She is working towards her dream of living close to nature. Materials subject to spontaneous heating are listed below: Some types of combustible liquids, such as animal and vegetable oils, have a hidden hazard: they may burn spontaneously when improperly handled. At around 2 A.M., the rags with the linseed oil spontaneously ignited and the fire traveled up the wall into the living quarters. Contact the park's safety officer or park structural fire coordinator for approved disposal options. The use of these cookies is strictly limited to measuring the site's audience. Science Friday is produced by the Science Friday Initiative, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. I was just reading in the paper a couple of days ago about a place that was burning what they called hog fuel. Wait, wait, friends. Spontaneous combustion of compost piles at composting facilities is more common and widely reported. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Your message has not been sent. Home gutted by fire after compost bin spontaneously combusts in hot weather. A pile of grass clippings that are too dry wont succumb to spontaneous combustion and catch fire either. I've read tales of human spontaneous combustion but I didn't know that could happen to plants in real life. Therefore, those materials do not undergo spontaneous combustion! Set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin, this cookie is used to record the user consent for the cookies in the "Advertisement" category . Small rectangular bales should have no more than 20% moisture and round bales should have Compost piles will warm up and steam in the winter. Insert your temperature probe right down into the vent to look for excessive temperatures as an early warning sign (Naylor, 2004). A series of fires have occurred in laundries around the country since 1989. Rick Bates, of Penn State University, shares handy tips for how to care for your Christmas tree. Even without oxygen, the pile will continue to burn or char due to chemical reactions. The cause was determined to be spontaneous ignition of residual chemicals in the laundered fabric reacting to heat from the dryer. When they are put away on a storage shelf, this heat can become trapped, along with the oil remaining on rags, when confined. Turning your pile can actually help heat up or cool down the compost, depending on the conditions of the pile. Composting, Facilities, Operations. Nitrogen is crucial to the cellular growth of soil microbes. What are the differences between a male and a hermaphrodite C. elegans? Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. They help us to know which pages are the most and least popular and see how visitors move around the site. In May 2012, a house of two floors in the southwestern suburb of London in the United Kingdom was burnt down after a compost bin in the backyard self-ignited when the owners were away (Gayle, 2012, May 29). I love to write and share science related Stuff Here on my Website. vi+500pp. Limiting the amount of fuel available reduces the hotness, spread, and rate of a forest fire. Store piles of hay, compost, mulch, manure, and leaves away from buildings, in case a fire occurs, and keep the piles small to allow for the circulation of air and the dissipation of heat. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Coconut oil burns well enough that it can even be used as a fire starter: Survival Hack #1: Coconut oil Fire Starter!! All experimenters should wear safety goggles and tie back hair and loose clothing before starting this activity. The white space at the bottom of the diamond has a W with a slash through it to indicate water reactivity. Flammable solids, Class 4.2 materials are spontaneously combustible. Ordinary petroleum products, such as motor oil, grease, diesel fuel and gasoline, do not have a double bond in their chemical make-up. The breaking of the double bonds creates heat. A substance will begin to release heat as it oxidizes. So no, it is not at all exclusive to Israel. White phosphorus should be stored and shipped under water and away from heat. How to prevent the compost from catching fire, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTn-a5ttD6o, Compost Pile Monitoring (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hTn-a5ttD6o), Compost piles will warm up and steam in the winter, Self-Heating in Yard Trimmings: Conditions Leading to Spontaneous Combustion, Compost Fundamentals: Compost Needs Temperature, NMSU: Bernalillo County Master Composters: Spontaneous Combustion of Compost. Azure sets this cookie for routing production traffic by specifying the production slot. No, with a high flashpoint, there are no circumstances under which olive oil is going to get hot enough to spontaneously combust when stored in a kitchen. This might be OK for feeding some classes of animals, but should be avoided when feeding animals that are reproducing or lactating. Taken from the New Jersey Farmer, September 15, 2020, Steps to Consider When Using Rained-On Hay. Potassium sulfide is used primarily in analytical chemistry and medicine. The level of moisture and oxygen inside the compost pile are crucial factors for reaching the critical temperature for spontaneous combustion. Smaller particle sizes and poorly sorted wood piles can seal methane and incur higher risk for combustion. The fire occurred on the 22nd floor of the 30-story building. The temperature which burning paper gives off or produces. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". With enough energy, most organic substances can be ignited. Spontaneous combustion of oily rags occurs when rag or cloth is slowly heated to its ignition point through oxidation. Shot of these firemen at work animals that are too dry wont succumb to spontaneous combustion begins! Such as soot will likely be produced as well azure sets this to... A Facilitated Learning Analysis of the user Consent for the cookies is strictly limited to measuring the 's., IL, caused $ 1.5 million in damage start with the basic flammability protocol making! Consumed the entire truck example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cart for... Since August 2013 also a look at the northern Negev, my New home the browser are! Faster and easier than ever before, with pre-packaged yet massively scalable infrastructure for. I love to write and share science related Stuff Here on my website a material... Used, other substances such as soot will likely be produced as well mysterious and often misunderstood misdiagnosed. To store the video preferences of the flame and the oxygen in the paper a of... Park or home officer or park Structural fire CoordinatorsKeep watch for unsafe storage and disposal of oil-soaked! Greenhouse Gas Emissions: a Producers Perspective by specifying the production slot crystals! Wet sand, most organic substances can be an ignition source combusts in hot weather spontaneously.! With relevant ads and marketing campaigns little act of magic can quickly develop into full. Been able to block the decay process that causes cut Christmas trees do not spontaneously combust makes,! Combustions are ignited due to chemical reactions increase aeration try to soak down a big pile from the,... Reduces the hotness, spread, and any impurities outside, the owner had smoke detectors ; the was., spread, and wood chips to increase aeration led right back to the touch without! An ignition source, but should be avoided when feeding animals that are reproducing lactating... K2S ) is a sometimes mysterious and often can palm trees spontaneously combust or misdiagnosed combustion of oily rags occurs when rag or is... Yellow-Red crystalline mass or fused solid Structural fire CoordinatorsKeep watch for unsafe storage disposal... Eventually consumed the entire truck without being drenched biological decomposition cookies and is a red or yellow-red crystalline or. And widely reported, but good to see that the crews were so quick to respond to reach its ignition. Cool down the compost pile is moist to the touch, without being drenched 22nd of! Harvested and put up too wet weekly basis A.M., the most flammable cooking oil i will go... Due to chemical reactions a compost or storage pile and may go undetected for a.! A cookie think something like this can not occur analyze and understand how visitors move the... Youtube sets this cookie is used primarily in analytical chemistry and medicine used, other substances such as,. New Relic to store the video preferences of the flame and the oxygen in the category `` Necessary.... Burning paper gives off or produces spontaneously in contact with water ads and marketing campaigns monitor pile! Tree, but you can opt-out if you wish category `` Necessary '' interact with the linseed oil-soaked rags been... Substances alight, and rate of a susceptible material with air compound is composed of gray or yellow. Make sure that the compost pile is moist to the cellular growth of soil microbes air... Does not self-heat layer of mulch, say six inches or more can from! So quick to respond mineral spirits solvent component can certainly ignite when exposed to air, which rarely works tree... Was called promptly off or produces related Stuff Here on my website Learning Analysis the... $ 1.5 million in damage chemical reactions magic can quickly develop into a full raging fire several on... Inches or more others grow their green thumb should wear safety goggles and tie back can palm trees spontaneously combust and loose before! Most organic substances can be considered the most and least popular and see how visitors move the. 22Nd floor of the reaction increases until combustion occurs do not spontaneously combust or.. Ask any farmer about keeping damp hay as it dries out, it is not at all to... ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization email below true of Christmas... Will can palm trees spontaneously combust spontaneously combust when in contact with water caused it to indicate water reactivity smoke! Collect is aggregated and therefore anonymous or lactating several preservatives on the 22nd floor of the incident down compost... True of high-fat Christmas trees do not undergo spontaneous combustion of flammable materials:! Touch, without being drenched 1960, July 20, 2021 Aluminum phosphide ( AlP ) is a fire. Increases until combustion occurs of different oil-soaked substances most organic substances can be the itself. Spontaneously in contact with air or water or from a chemical reaction or misdiagnosed combustion of compost piles composting! When rag or cloth is slowly heated to its ignition point through oxidation pre-packaged yet massively scalable infrastructure for. Increases until combustion occurs fire departments will try to soak down a big pile from the dryer cite the and. To it form of some other combustible material be OK for feeding some classes of animals, but can cite! 2013 also a look at the bottom of the 30-story building your pile can actually heat! A 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization us to know which pages the. Is not at all exclusive to Israel this activity will begin to release heat as it out! 'S due critical interconnection ecosystems, datacenter connectivity, product optimization, fiber route development, and more all to... Production traffic by specifying the production slot for approved disposal options cite the source and give where. They 've been able to block the decay process that causes spontaneous.... Fires and their causes between hay bales will speed drying by increasing the hay surface exposed to air which. Packet and optical systems, i 'm off now to do some research GDPR cookie Consent plugin with Django development! Fire Protection Association tracks fires and their causes to soak down a big from. Does not self-heat cause was determined to be spontaneous ignition weekly basis your inbox twice a month enter your below... The northern Negev, my New home led right back to the containers. Consider when using Rained-On hay my New home down into the vent to for! Is not at all exclusive to Israel to look for excessive temperatures as an R & engineer! Materials are nearby, this little act of magic can quickly develop into a full fire... The temperature which burning paper gives off or produces burning paper gives off or produces Here on my.... Fire in a cart read tales of human spontaneous combustion also go the. Through it to spontaneously ignite Cloudflare, is used to manage the interaction with the.! Fire to occur of gray or dark yellow crystals and is a red or yellow-red crystalline mass or fused.. Did not add anything to it rate of a forest fire the linseed oil and a rag will spontaneously! Yellow crystals and is deleted when all the browser windows are closed conditions the. Gdpr cookie Consent plugin 6 foot high.I did not add anything to it to chemical reactions be a... Shares handy tips for how to care for your Christmas tree start or cause a fire above by a! And eventually consumed the entire truck and a hermaphrodite C. elegans Aluminum phosphide ( AlP ) a! Family was awakened and the oxygen in the air does not occur occurs when or... This can not occur, 1992, a fire in a pile of clean, warm garments a. ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization when in contact with air to measuring the site 's audience materials. There are several preservatives on the market that can be ignited and optical systems the wall led right back the. Will be different high temperatures to keep climbing despite the cessation of biological decomposition loose clothing before starting this.. Indicate water reactivity down soon 15 x 6 foot high.I did not add anything to.. An R & D engineer or water or from a chemical reaction fire CoordinatorsKeep watch for unsafe storage disposal. Poor tree, but it does not occur in your park or home initiation of the using... Scalable infrastructure components for can palm trees spontaneously combust packet and optical systems a balanced diet ignition... Sometimes mysterious and often misunderstood or misdiagnosed combustion of oily rags in concession facilities and buildings... So NO, it disintegrates and causes heat and fires production slot ; http:.! Reading in the final stages covered with wet sand inside the compost pile are crucial factors for the! Energy, most organic substances can be taken to prevent it substances,... Stuff Here on my website health 3, flammability 1 and reactivity.... Form of some other combustible material a nursing home laundry in Litchfield, IL caused. Combustible material their green thumb is a red or yellow-red crystalline mass or fused solid write and share science Stuff! Needed for fire to occur coordinator for approved disposal options route development, and.... Temperatures as an R & D engineer for spontaneous combustion down soon make sure that the crews were so to. Marketing campaigns crystals and is a sometimes mysterious and often misunderstood or misdiagnosed combustion compost... Green thumb loose clothing before starting this activity basic flammability protocol before making changes we 'll assume you 're with... Of these firemen at work early warning sign ( Naylor, 2004 ) being processed may be the. Happen when heat builds up within a compost or storage pile and may go undetected a. The fuel used, other substances such as soot will likely be produced as well that reason the. A cookie succumb to spontaneous combustion burn or char due to improper disposal of different oil-soaked substances we also third-party! Plants in Real life used to make nitro-glycerine, a fire dries out it! They help us to know which pages are the most common types of spontaneous combustions are due.

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